Conjunctions
Latin has more conjunctions than English, and they are pickier — et, -que, and atque all translate "and," but each signals a different kind of joining, and sed, autem, vērō, and at all translate "but" with different rhetorical weight.
The big split is coordinate (joining equals: et … sed … nam … igitur) vs subordinate (introducing a dependent clause: cum, ut, sī, quod, nē).
Subordinate conjunctions usually decide whether the verb in their clause goes indicative or subjunctive — so reading them right is the gateway to half of Latin syntax.
The trap to plan for: several of these little words (autem, enim, vērō, igitur) are postpositive — they never start their clause, so you'll meet them as the second word in.
Coordinate conjunctions link equal pieces; subordinate conjunctions open a clause that depends on the main one — and usually pick the mood of its verb.
Postpositive conjunctions (autem, enim, vērō, igitur) never stand first in their clause — read them as belonging to the whole clause.
See It In Action
— B. G. vii. 77
Four parallel objects with no conjunction at all — pure asyndeton. The piling-up itself is the rhetorical effect; English wants "and" before the last item.
— A&G § 324. a (proverbial)
-que binds ferrum and īgnis into a single combined idea — "the fire-and-sword treatment." Use et and the two would feel listed; -que welds them.
— Ter. Eun. 714
modo … modo is one of several adverb pairs (nunc … nunc, tum … tum, quā … quā) that act as paired conjunctions — "first one, then the other."
— Cic. Cat. M. 77
enim is postpositive — it sits second but governs the whole clause. Translate it at the front: "for the soul is from heaven," not "is, for, the soul…"
et → "and" between items
senātus et populus = the senate and the people
X Yque → "X and Y" as one combined idea
senātus populusque = SPQR — the senate-and-people as one body
atque → "and what's more / and indeed"
ūsus atque disciplīna = practice — and theory besides
sed → "but" — a clean contrast
sed quis ego sum = but who am I?
autem (postpositive) → "now / however / on the other hand"
Caesar autem = Caesar, on the other hand
nam / namque (first) → "for" — a stated cause
nam dum sumus inclūsī = for as long as we are confined
enim (postpositive) → "for / you see" — slipped-in explanation
est enim caelestis = for [the soul] is heavenly
All three translate "and," but they signal different degrees of connection. Vocab lists hide this distinction.
lists two or more separate items
cum coniugibus et līberīs
with [their] wives and children
binds a natural pair into one combined idea
ferrō īgnīque
with fire and sword (as one weapon)
Tip: Ask: are these two things being listed (et), welded together as a pair (-que), or added with emphasis or surprise (atque — "and what's more")?
In est enim animus caelestis, what's the function of enim, and why is it second?
Study Tips
- •Learn the "and" trio together: et connects loosely (A and B), -que glues a natural pair (senātus populusque), atque adds with emphasis ("and what's more").
- •When you see autem, enim, vērō, or igitur as the second word in a clause, mentally move it to the front for English — it belongs with the whole clause, not just the word it follows.
- •For subordinate conjunctions, drill them by the mood they take: sī/cum/quod can take either; ut/nē almost always take subjunctive; postquam/ubi/dum ("while") usually take indicative.
- •Don't let aut and vel blur — aut says "one or the other, not both," vel says "either works." Cicero is meticulous about this; later authors less so.